Electric And Hybrid Vehicles Design Fundamentals Pdf Reader

With advances driven by pressure from governments, environmental activists, and its associated industries, the subject of electric and hybrid vehicles is becoming increasingly important. Trends clearly suggest that we must educate the engineers of today and tomorrow in the technical details of these vehicles. While there are many books that provide narrative descriptions of electric and hybrid vehicle components, none cover the technical aspects from a mathematically derived, design point of view, and none serve well as a textbook.Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Design Fundamentals presents a comprehensive, systems-level perspective of these vehicles that strikes an outstanding balance between technical details, design equations, numerical examples, and case studies. Starting with some historic background, the author describes the system components, the laws of physics governing vehicle motion, the mathematical relationships within and between the components, energy sources, and designing components to meet the complete vehicle specifications.As this text illustrates, the electric vehicle is an excellent example of electro-mechanical and electro-chemical systems, one that is technically challenging as well as highly motivating to engineering students. The material presented is designed to be covered comfortably in a one-semester course.

Wondershare Keygen Mac. Its multidisciplinary nature and systems approach makes Electric and Hybrid Vehicles ideal for teaching electrical, mechanical, and chemical engineers all in one course.

Of, a diesel-electric hybrid driving system by Hybrid use or to power railway locomotives, buses, heavy goods vehicles, mobile, and ships. A / drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump, which powers electric/hydraulic motor(s) - strictly an electric/hydraulic transmission (not a hybrid), unless it can accept power from outside. With large vehicles conversion losses decrease, and the advantages in distributing power through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements become more prominent, especially when powering multiple drives — e.g. Driven wheels or propellers. Until recently most heavy vehicles had little secondary energy storage, e.g.

Batteries/ — excepting non-nuclear, one of the oldest production hybrids, running on diesels while surfaced and batteries when submerged. Both series and parallel setups were used in WW2 submarines. Rail transport [ ].

Europe The new (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the Canadian company for service in France is diesel/electric motors, using 1500 or 25000 V on different rail systems. It was tested in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with, a Genesse and Wyoming company. China The First Hybrid Evaluating locomotive was designed by rail research center in 1999 and built in 2000.

It was a G12 locomotive upgraded with batteries, a 200 kW diesel generator and 4 AC motors. Japan Japan's first hybrid train with significant energy storage is the, with roof-mounted. India Indian railway launched one of its kind -Diesel hybrid trains in January 2015.

The train has a 1400 hp engine which uses fumigation technology. [ ] The first of these train is set to run on the 81 km long Rewari-Rohtak route. CNG is less-polluting alternative for diesel and petrol and is popular as an alternative fuel in India. Already many transport vehicles such as auto-rickshaws and buses run on CNG fuel. North America In the US, made a locomotive with (Na-NiCl 2) battery storage. They expect ≥10% fuel economy. Variant include the (GG) and (GK) built by Canada's, with (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 hp electric motors, and a new clean burning ~160 hp diesel generator.

Home Assignment Calendar Lessons and Notes Sitemap Home Assignment Calendar Download PDF A Zebra in Lion Country Best Seller EPUB by Ralph Wanger Download PDF Acid-Base, Fluids and Electrolytes Made Ridiculously Simple Popular Collection by Richard A Preston Download PDF Affect. Thoroughly updated to encompass the significant technological advances since the publication of the first edition, this second edition presents the design fundamentals, component sizing, and systems interactions of alternative vehicles. This new edition of a widely praised, bestselling textbook maintains.

No fuel is wasted for idling — ~60–85% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if regenerative braking is used; but in principle it is easily utilized. Since these engines typically need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery pack's weight is a negligible penalty. [ ] The diesel generator and batteries are normally built on an existing 'retired' 'yard' locomotive's frame. The existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused.

Fuel savings of 40–60% and up to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over a 'typical' older switching/yard engine. The advantages hybrid cars have for frequent starts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switching yard use. 'Green Goat' locomotives have been purchased by,,, and among others. [ ] Railpower Technologies engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems are testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery storage for use in (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks in ports and container storage yards. The energy used to lift the containers can be partially regained when they are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductions of 50–70% are predicted by Railpower engineers.

First systems are expected to be operational in 2007. Road transport, commercial vehicles [ ]. 2008 hybrid version Hybrid systems are coming into use for trucks, buses and other heavy highway vehicles.

Small fleet sizes and installation costs are compensated by fuel savings. [ ] With advances such as higher capacity, lowered battery cost etc. Toyota, Ford, GM and others are introducing hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently introduced the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city usage seems to be competitive. And others are investing in hybrid delivery vehicles — particularly for city use where hybrid technology may pay off first. As of December 2013 FedEx is trialling two delivery trucks with Wrightspeed electric motors and diesel generators; the retrofit kits are claimed to pay for themselves in a few years.

The diesel engines run at a constant for peak efficiency. In 1978 students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a to a petro-hydraulic hybrid with off-the shelf components.

A car rated at 32 mpg was returning 75 mpg with the 60 hp engine replaced by a 16 hp engine, and reached 70 mph. In the 1990s, engineers at EPA’s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory developed a petro-hydraulic powertrain for a typical American sedan car. The test car achieved over 80 mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles. Acceleration was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a 1.9 liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used. The EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the cost. Under EPA testing, a hydraulic hybrid returned 32 mpg (7.4 L/100 km) City, and 22 mpg (11 L/100 km) highway.

Currently has two trucks in service using this technology. Military off-road vehicles [ ] Since 1985, the US military has been testing and have found them to deliver faster acceleration, a mode with low / near silent operation, and greater fuel economy. Ships [ ] Ships with both mast-mounted and were an early form of hybrid vehicle. Another example is the.

This runs on batteries when submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by the when the craft is on the surface. Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large manufactured by companies such as.

Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than the tallest ship masts, capturing stronger and steadier winds. Aircraft [ ] The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is coupled to a conventional propeller. The fuel cell provides all power for the cruise phase of flight. During takeoff and climb, the flight segment that requires the most power, the system draws on lightweight lithium-ion batteries. The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft Industries of Austria, which also carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wing span of 16.3 meters (53 feet), the airplane will be able to cruise at about 100 km/h (62 mph) on power from the fuel cell. Hybrid FanWings have been designed.

A FanWing is created by two engines with the capability to autorotate and landing like a helicopter. Engine type [ ] Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles [ ]. Main article: When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a. These encompass such vehicles as the,,,,,,,, and and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses engines (using a variety of fuels, generally gasoline or ) and to power the vehicle.

The energy is stored in the fuel of the internal combustion engine and an. There are many, from Full hybrid to, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages. Patton filed a patent application for a gasoline-electric hybrid rail-car propulsion system in early 1889, and for a similar hybrid boat propulsion system in mid 1889. There is no evidence that his hybrid boat met with any success, but he built a prototype hybrid and sold a small. In 1899, developed the world's first petro-electric automobile.

In 1900, developed a using two with an internal combustion generator set providing the electric power; Porsche's hybrid set two speed records. [ ] While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 19th century, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978–79. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to return as much as 75 mpg with plans still sold to this original design, and the 'Mother Earth News' modified version on their website. The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the range needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services.

The batteries can be plugged into house (mains) electricity for charging, as well being charged while the engine is running. Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV) [ ] Some can be recharged while the user drives.

Such a vehicle establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see ). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this process—on the highway—and can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged. For example, some of the battery-electric locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London Underground are capable of this mode of operation. Developing a BEV infrastructure would provide the advantage of virtually unrestricted highway range. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a major highway, BEV technology could reduce the need for expensive battery systems.

Unfortunately, private use of the existing electrical system is almost universally prohibited. Besides, the technology for such electrical infrastructure is largely outdated and, outside some cities, not widely distributed (see,,,, ). Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs could perhaps be funded by toll revenue or by dedicated transportation taxes. Hybrid fuel (dual mode) [ ]. With a capability to run on () In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for, some also consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types (') using the same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as vehicles: • Some can switch between an on-board and overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see ). Love Never Forgetting Eng Sub Free Download there. In principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006, no such design seems to have been announced.

• can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank — typically and,,. •: and are very different from petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. For example, some Chevrolet can effortlessly switch between petroleum and natural gas, offering a range of over 1000 km (650 miles). While the duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range, decreased cost of fuel, and flexibility where or infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase. While the US Natural gas infrastructure is partially incomplete, it is increasing at a fast pace, and already has 2600 stations in place.

With a growing fueling station infrastructure, a large scale adoption of these bi-fuel vehicles could be seen in the near future. Rising gas prices may also push consumers to purchase these vehicles.

When gas prices trade around $4.00, the price per of gasoline is $28.00, compared to natural gas's $4.00 per MMBTU. On a per unit of energy comparative basis, this makes natural gas much cheaper than gasoline. All of these factors are making CNG-Gasoline bi-fuel vehicles very attractive. • Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars modified to run on and diesels modified to run on that has not been processed into biodiesel.

• Power-assist mechanisms for and other are also included (see ). Fluid power hybrid [ ]. French MDI petro-air hybrid car developed with Tata and use an engine to charge a pressure accumulator to drive the wheels via (liquid) or (compressed air) drive units. In most cases the engine is detached from the drivetrain, serving solely to charge the energy accumulator. The transmission is seamless. Regenerative braking can be used to recover some of the supplied drive energy back into the accumulator. Petro-air hybrid [ ] A French company,, has designed and has running models of a petro-air hybrid engine car.

The system does not use air motors to drive the vehicle, being directly driven by a hybrid engine. The engine uses a mixture of compressed air and gasoline injected into the cylinders. A key aspect of the hybrid engine is the 'active chamber', which is a compartment heating air via fuel doubling the energy output. Of India assessed the design phase towards full production for the Indian market and moved into 'completing detailed development of the compressed air engine into specific vehicle and stationary applications'.

Petro-hydraulic hybrid [ ]. A series-parallel drivetrain In a parallel hybrid vehicle an electric motor and an internal combustion engine are coupled such that they can power the vehicle either individually or together. Most commonly the internal combustion engine, the electric motor and gear box are coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric driving the clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run at the same speed.

The first mass production parallel hybrid sold outside Japan was the 1st generation. Mild parallel hybrid [ ] These types use a generally compact electric motor (usually. A, also called extended range electric vehicle (EREV). A series- or serial-hybrid vehicle is driven by an electric motor, functioning as an electric vehicle while the battery pack energy supply is sufficient, with an engine tuned for running as a generator when the battery pack is insufficient. There is no mechanical connection between the engine and the wheels, and the purpose of the range extender is to charge the battery. Unless there has been a rework of the drivetrain since its first release there is a mechanical linkage in the Chevrolet Volt.

Series-hybrids have also been referred to as, range-extended electric vehicle, or electric vehicle-extended range (EREV/REEV/EVER). The with Range Extender is a production series-hybrid. It operates as an electric vehicle until the battery charge is low, and then activates the generator to maintain power, and is also available without the range extender. The was the first series hybrid production vehicle. When describing cars, the battery of a series hybrid is usually charged by being plugged in - but technically a series-hybrid allows for a battery to only act as a buffer (and for regeneration purposes), and for the electric motor's power to be supplied constantly by the supporting engine. Series arrangements have been common in and ships. Effectively invented this arrangement in racing cars in the early 20th century, such as the, with Porsche naming the arrangement 'System Mixt' - a arrangement, with a motor in each of the two front wheels was used, setting speed records.

This arrangement was sometimes referred to as an electric transmission, as the electric generator and driving motor replaced a mechanical transmission. The vehicle could not move unless the internal combustion engine was running. In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in Japan.

Introduced the series plug-in hybrid in 2010, aiming for an of 40 mi (64 km), though this car also has a mechanical connection between the engine and drivetrain. Combined with a battery bank have been used by in a converted Saturn Vue SUV vehicle. Using they claim up to 150 mpg in a series-hybrid arrangement. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) [ ].

See also: Another subtype of hybrid vehicles is the (PHEV). The plug-in hybrid is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with increased energy storage capacity, usually through a, which allows the vehicle to drive on a distance that depends on the battery size and its mechanical layout (series or parallel). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at the end of the journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal combustion engine. This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding – or at least minimizing – the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric vehicles, the total emissions saving, for example in CO 2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the electricity generating company.

For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long as the electrical energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would have otherwise used. Current tax systems in many European countries use mineral oil taxation as a major income source. This is generally not the case for electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic customer, however that person uses it. Some electricity suppliers also offer price benefits for off-peak night users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the plug-in option for commuters and urban motorists. Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians [ ]. Main article: A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report examined accidents that involved pedestrians and cyclists and compared them to accidents involving vehicles (ICEV). The findings showed that, in certain road situations, HEVs are more dangerous for those on foot or bicycle.

For accidents where a vehicle was slowing or stopping, backing up, entering or leaving a parking space (when the sound difference between HEVs and ICEVs is most pronounced), HEVs were twice as likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than ICEVs. For crashes involving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a higher incident rate for HEVs than ICEVs when a vehicle was turning a corner. But there was no statistically significant difference between the types of vehicles when they were driving straight.

Several automakers developed designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of such as hybrid electric vehicle, and (EVs) travelling at low speeds. Their purpose is to make pedestrians, cyclists, the blind, and others aware of the vehicle's presence while operating in. Vehicles in the market with such safety devices include the,,,,,,, 2012, the 2012, 2012, and all cars recently introduced, including the standard, the, and the.

Environmental issues [ ] Fuel consumption and emissions reductions [ ] The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than conventional (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design: • Relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs, resulting in a smaller engine size more for average usage rather than peak power usage. A smaller engine can have less internal losses and lower weight. • Having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy, especially in stop-and-go traffic typical of the city. • Recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are normally wasted as heat. This reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into electricity, depending upon the power rating of the motor/generator; Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found on hybrid vehicles include: • Using engines instead of engines for improved fuel economy. • Shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during other idle periods.

• Improving; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more force to move through the air causing more stress on the engine making it work harder).

Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a car is a good way to help better the fuel economy and also improve at the same time. • Using low (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth ride, high grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical, once again making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by choice of structure and rubber compound have lower rolling resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the power source.

• Powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and when needed; this reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them continuously with traditional engine belts. These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition are reduced, particularly at idling and low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous high speed highway use these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.

Hybrid vehicle emissions [ ] Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the recommended level set by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended levels they suggest for a typical passenger vehicle should be equated to 5.5 metric tons of CO 2. The three most popular hybrid vehicles,, and, set the standards even higher by producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide emissions. Hybrid vehicles can reduce air emissions of smog-forming pollutants by up to 90% and cut carbon dioxide emissions in half. More fossil fuel is needed to build hybrid vehicles than conventional cars but reduced emissions when running the vehicle more than outweigh this. Environmental impact of hybrid car battery [ ]. This section needs additional citations for.

Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) () Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is still an issue regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid car battery. Today most hybrid car batteries are one of two types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or 2); both are regarded as more environmentally friendly than which constitute the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today. There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others. Lithium ion is the least toxic of the two mentioned above.

The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries—the type currently used in hybrids—are much lower than batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium according to one source. Another source claims nickel metal hydride batteries are much more toxic than lead batteries, also that recycling them and disposing of them safely is difficult. In general various soluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such as nickel chloride and nickel oxide, have known carcinogenic effects in chick embryos and rats. The main nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), which is used as the positive electrode. The lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for use in hybrid electric vehicles. Hitachi is a leader in its development.

In addition to its smaller size and lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries deliver performance that helps to protect the environment with features such as improved charge efficiency without. The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickel–metal hydride battery cell while simultaneously storing large quantities of electricity as well.

The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power), higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle. Additionally, use of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than petro-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO 2 emissions helping to prevent global warming. Charging [ ] There is two different levels of charging. Level one charging is the slower method as it uses a standard 120 V/15 A single-phase grounded outlet. Level two is a faster method; existing Level 2 equipment offers charging from 208 V or 240 V (at up to 80 A, 19.2 kW). It may require dedicated equipment and a connection installation for home or public units, although vehicles such as the Tesla have the power electronics on board and need only the outlet. The optimum charging window for Lithium ion batteries is 3-4.2 V.

Recharging with a 120 volt household outlet takes several hours, a 240 volt charger takes 1–4 hours, and a quick charge takes approximately 30 minutes to achieve 80% charge. Three important factors—distance on charge, cost of charging, and time to charge In order for the hybrid to run on electrical power, the car must perform the action of braking in order to generate some electricity. The electricity then gets discharged most effectively when the car accelerates or climbs up an incline. In 2014, hybrid electric car batteries can run on solely electricity for 70–130 miles (110–210 km) on a single charge. Hybrid battery capacity currently ranges from 4.4 kWh to 85 kWh on a fully electric car. On a hybrid car, the battery packs currently range from 0.6 kWh to 2.4 kWh representing a large difference in use of electricity in hybrid cars.

Raw materials increasing costs [ ]. This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2014) There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid cars. For example, the is required to fabricate many of the advanced and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems. Is another rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in permanent magnet electric motors. Nearly all the in the world come from China, and many analysts believe that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire supply by 2012.

In addition, export quotas on Chinese rare earth elements have resulted in an unknown amount of supply. A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced project in northern Canada as well as in Australia are currently under development; however, the barriers to entry are high and require years to go online.

How hybrid-electric vehicles work [ ] Hybrids-Electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the advantage of gasoline engines and electric motors. The key areas for efficiency or performance gains are regenerative braking, dual power sources, and less idling. • Regenerate Braking.

[ ]The drivetrain can be used to convert kinetic energy (from the moving car) into stored electrical energy (batteries). The same electric motor that powers the drivetrain is used to resist the motion of the drivetrain. This applied resistance from the electric motor causes the wheel to slow down and simultaneously recharge the batteries. • Dual Power.

Power can come from either the engine, motor or both depending on driving circumstances. Additional power to assist the engine in accelerating or climbing might be provided by the electric motor. Or more commonly, a smaller electric motor provides all of the power for low-speed driving conditions and is augmented by the engine at higher speeds.

• Automatic Start/Shutoff. It automatically shuts off the engine when the vehicle comes to a stop and restarts it when the accelerator is pressed down.

This automation is much simpler with an electric motor. Also see dual power above. Alternative green vehicles [ ]. This section may require to meet Wikipedia's. No has been specified.

Please help if you can. (September 2010) () While the adoption rate for hybrids in the US is small today (2.2% of new car sales in 2011), this compares with a 17.1% share of new car sales in Japan in 2011, and it has the potential to be very large over time as more models are offered and incremental costs decline due to learning and scale benefits.

However, forecasts vary widely. For instance,, a long-time skeptic of hybrids, indicated he expects hybrids 'will never comprise more than 10% of the US auto market.' Other sources also expect hybrid penetration rates in the US will remain under 10% for many years. More optimistic views include predictions that hybrids would dominate new car sales in the US and elsewhere over the next 10 to 20 years. Another approach, taken by Saurin Shah, examines the penetration rates (or S-curves) of four analogs (historical and current) to hybrid and electrical vehicles in an attempt to gauge how quickly the vehicle stock could be hybridized and/or electrified in the United States. The analogs are (1) the electric motors in US factories in the early 20th century, (2) diesel electric locomotives on US railways in the 1920–1945 period, (3) a range of new automotive features/technologies introduced in the US over the past fifty years, and 4) e-bike purchases in China over the past few years.

These analogs collectively suggest it would take at least 30 years for hybrid and electric vehicles to capture 80% of the US passenger vehicle stock. European Union 2020 Regulation Standards [ ] The European Parliament, Council and European Commission has reached an agreement which is aimed at reducing the average CO2 passenger car emissions to 95 g/km by 2020, according to a European Commission press release. According to the release, the key details of the agreement are as follows: Emissions target: The agreement will reduce average CO2 emissions from new cars to 95 g/km from 2020, as proposed by the Commission.

This is a 40% reduction from the mandatory 2015 target of 130 g/km. The target is an average for each manufacturer's new car fleet; it allows OEMs to build some vehicles that emit less than the average and some that emit more. 2025 target: The Commission is required to propose a further emissions reduction target by end-2015 to take effect in 2025. This target will be in line with the EU's long-term climate goals. Supercredits for low-emission vehicles: The Regulation will give manufacturers additional incentives to produce cars with CO2 emissions of 50 g/km or less (which will be electric or plug-in hybrid cars). Each of these vehicles will be counted as two vehicles in 2020, 1.67 in 2021, 1.33 in 2022 and then as one vehicle from 2023 onwards.

These supercredits will help manufacturers further reduce the average emissions of their new car fleet. However, to prevent the scheme from undermining the environmental integrity of the legislation, there will be a 2.5 g/km cap per manufacturer on the contribution that supercredits can make to their target in any year. See also [ ].

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